Afrazeh_2026_Plants.(Basel)_15_

Although the effectiveness of plant-derived essential oils (EOs) against several insect pests is well-documented, their high volatility presents a challenge. In this study, the potential to enhance the insecticidal activity of Satureja hortensis L. EO, an accessible natural agent, through nanoemulsification was assessed against the cosmopolitan pest Spodoptera frugiperda (J. E. Smith, 1797). The nanoemulsion of the EO (NEEO) was prepared using Tween 80 as the emulsifying agent and high-intensity ultrasonication. Oral bioassays indicated that the NEEO was more toxic (LC(50) = 0.922%) than the pure EO (LC(50) = 1.186%). Sublethal exposure to LC(30) of the NEEO caused evident reductions in preadult survival, developmental time, fecundity, and oviposition period, as well as the population growth parameter net reproductive rate (R(0)). The exposure to the NEEO increased catalase (CAT), glutathione S-transferase (GST), and superoxide dismutase (SOD) actions and inhibited alpha-esterase (alpha-NE), beta-esterase (beta-NE), and cytochrome P450 (CYP450) actions. Both the NEEO and EO inhibited acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and Na(+)/K(+)-ATPase, with higher inhibition in the NEEO group. Generally, S. hortensis NEEO enhanced toxicity, intensified physiological perturbations, and caused greater negative impacts on population growth parameters. Consequently, nanoemulsification of S. hortensis EO can be considered an effective method to strengthen the insecticidal potential of this natural agent.