Andrade_2025_Chemosphere_377_144371

Nanotechnology has contributed to agriculture industry with novel products to improve the targeted delivery of active ingredients (a.i.), enable gradual release, avoid premature degradation, and increase efficacy. The properties of nanopesticides make their drift and environmental behavior more unpredictable than traditional formulations. Our aim was to compare the ecotoxicity of two insecticides with lambda-cyhalothrin as a.i.: a nano-based one and a traditional emulsified, considering the incidence of temperature according to climate change prospections (20 and 24 degreesC). We evaluated their effects on Daphnia magna survival, body stores, and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE) activity. Although after 24 h the traditional formulation had greater lethality than the nanopesticide, after 48 h this pattern was reversed. At 24 degreesC the lethality of both pesticides increased. BChE activity was inhibited at 24 degreesC by both pesticides. In general, the increase in temperature negatively affected protein and glycogen content. The traditional formulation reduced glycogen content at 24 degreesC. A decrease in lipid content and the whole energy budget was observed in organisms exposed to the traditional formulation at both temperatures. Although the nano-based pesticide developed a delayed toxicity, it was more lethal than the traditional one in the long term. The temperature rise worsened the pesticides effects in terms of decreased survival, BChE activity inhibition, and energy reserves depletion. The development and regulation of new eco-safer nanopesticides needs to be complemented by their ecotoxicological assessment. It is imperative to analyze their impact in the context of climate change in order to develop mitigation and adaptation strategies.