McClelland_2022_Environ.Sci.Technol__

Despite regulations and improved design, pesticides remain ubiquitous in the environment at relatively low, trace concentrations. To understand how prolonged exposure to trace pesticide concentrations impacts vertebrate brain development and behavior, we raised larval amphibians (northern leopard frogs, Lithobates pipiens) in 0, 1, or 10 microg/L of the organophosphorus pesticide chlorpyrifos (CPF) from hatching to metamorphosis. Tadpoles exposed to 1 microg/L CPF, but not 10 microg/L CPF, had changes in relative brain mass, relative telencephalon shape, and behavioral responses to a novel visual cue. Tadpoles exposed to 10 microg/L CPF had altered behavioral responses to predator-associated olfactory cues. After metamorphosis, frogs raised in 1 microg/L CPF, but not 10 microg/L CPF, had changes in the shape of their optic tectum and medulla. Thus, we provide robust evidence that even trace, yet ecologically realistic, concentrations of CPF have neurodevelopmental and behavioral effects that carry over to later life-history stages, further emphasizing the potent effects of trace levels of CPF on vertebrate development. Also, some but not all effects were nonmonotonic, meaning that effects were evident at the lowest but not at the higher concentration of CPF.